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Kirthana. S. (2024) Transcending stereotypes: Reflecting transgender narratives in the Hindu and times of India.
Himalayan Beacon Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Himalayanbeacon.com Retrieved October 12, 2024,
from Transcending Stereotypes: Reflecting Transgender Narratives in The Hindu and Times of India – Himalayan Beacon
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Corresponding Address
S. P. Kirthana
Doctoral Research Scholar, Department
of Communication and Media Studies,
Bharathiar University, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu
Email: spkirthana112@gmail.com
ORCID ID: 0009-0006-7184-8879
Abstract
In the binary norm of gender existing in the society where mass media has profound influence, transgender people experience less acceptance witnessing social exclusion over unveiling their gender identity. Despite holding antique cultural heritage in history, they encounter social stigma at multiple levels. In that case of empowering gender minorities like transgender people, mass media’s influence is undeniable, where, media framing becomes vital as it can shape public opinions powerfully. The objective of the study is to analyse the media narratives of transgender people in English newspapers, The Hindu and Times of India. It also attempts to explore the media perception as received by transgender people and understand their ethnic and cultural identities that reconcile mainstreaming. The study adopts “Mixed Method Research Design” where qualitative data from two English newspapers were collected for analyses and transgender case study observations (10 Transgender women and 2 transgender men) were made through snow ball sampling. The study uses media framing theory, where five frames were coded namely Deviance, Abnormality, Religious, Equal Rights, and Victimisation Frames for in depth understanding. Major findings of the study revealed that the representation of transgender narratives were strongly inclined to equal rights frame demanding equality and acceptance. It is further revealed that there exists gap between media representation of transgender people and their perceptions of these narratives. As media portrayal aids as a catalyst to provide knowledge about transgender people, who lack direct contact with them, prudent representation would ensures gender conformity.
Keywords: Transgender narratives, gender identity, Times of India, The Hindu
Introduction
Indian culture has a historically marked tolerance with reference to androgynous appearance (Ramos, 2018) and there are documentations of transgender people representation, having a long record history that
dates back to 4000 years (Kalra, 2012) where their social life is much different and unique from others. For instance, ‘Pannirupatiyal’, an ancient grammar book written in 12th century documents the existence of the third gender as
‘Aanpaal, penpaal aliyena nindra
Moondre paalena mozhindharanar pulavar’
(Paalpagupu; Pal-45)
(Babu, 2021), meaning that humans have three genders as male, female and transgender. As the term gender has continued to evolve dynamically, it is often referred to ways that people act, interact or feel about themselves (Chandra, 2021) and the gender identity becomes internal where one’s intensely felt sense of being woman or man and gender expression is external referring to the external characteristics of the individual. According to Butler (2004) gender is performative and gender roles are elusive and broad that it is supposed to be pluralistic, not essentially men and women. World Health Organisation (2003) defines gender as the ‘the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. Moreover, the term transgender is used to describe those who ‘cross socially constructed gender boundaries’, and it is an umbrella term indicating to people who don’t identify themselves with their sex category assigned at birth. Many of them live with ambiguous feelings with reference to his or her sex category. However, every social system has its own norms, children are nurtured accordingly and they are expected to behave and express themselves according to social norms or as socially accepted identities. Sometimes it becomes very crucial and the individual who show non-conforming behaviours are excluded, if they are not able to express their natural identity or disgraced or exploited by other society members and their life becomes full of stress and stigmas. It is necessary to understand and respect various natural gender identities.
The social and cultural construct of gender do not depend upon biological traits. Every society expects that its member must act according to the gender roles, which also differs from society to society or culture to culture and region to region. During the ancient times there were two significant epics in Indian literature, where there were transgender representation characters. This included a woman Brihannala and a transgender man Shikandi in Mahabharata. Ramayana also has depictions of transgender people where they
are treated as God as Mohini. Mohini is an avatar of Hindu god Vishnu and is particularly worshiped in the Aravaan temples. In Saiva cult, the God Arthanāreeswarā or Arthanaari (half man, half woman) hold a crucial position that depicts the identity of transgender community. The statue is found in Kailasanathar temple in Kanchipuram, Sunguvar Sathiram near Kanchipuram, Elavanasoorkottai in Villupuram district and in Rishivandhiyam, Villupuram.
Criminal Tribes Act, 1871
In 1526, during the reign of Mughal Emperor Babur transgender community were trusted for their loyalty and were the protector of the royal women. Such honoured and dignified representations of transgender community were deteriorated during British colonisation in India through Criminal Tribes Act
of 1871. The part II of Criminal Tribes Act, 1871 required the police to register ‘eunuchs’ (stigmatised term used in the Act), who were “reasonably suspected” of kidnapping and castration. People identified as ‘eunuchs’ were deemed suspect merely if they wore women’s clothing or performed in public. Today, the population of ‘other’ as per Census 2011 is 4, 87,803. In Tamil Nadu, 22,364 were recorded as ‘others’ that may involve transgender people, according to PIB report, 2019. With this population, the social identity of
a transgender people becomes vital as a form of social capital that can be characterized by the aggregation of their bonds to a social system. Therefore, identity allows the subject to be in a social system and to be socially established. Because of their membership in a social group, their social identity is perceived with their gender identity and visibility of their gender affecting their social support.
In addition to this, the narrative representation of transgender people and their portrayals in popular media becomes crucial, as it creates discourses in public sphere to openly discuss gender identity, gender expression, gender non-conformity and other related issues like non- binary identities and sexual
orientation, while the transgender community continues to remain a marginalized section of the society. Such representation paves the way for people in a society to get to know groups or communities that they might not interact with or have previous knowledge about. The effects of mass medium can have long-term impacts on people and lead them to believe that the portrayal is the actual social reality, according to the cultivation theory (Gerbner, 1969). Despite being legally recognized as the third gender in India currently, the community largely remains ostracized and discriminated for their gender visibility. Thereby, print news media organizations remain at the core of national conversations, especially with the expanded accessibility. As the mainstream media are enough powerful to decide what should be the news and how it’ll be framed, they have a history of marginalizing and stereotyping representation of the communities, especially transgender community.
The media coverage of the transgender people and inclusion of transgender individuals has increased recently; this surge in coverage has paralleled the social changes. So, has the visibility of the transgender community.
Review of literature
Stigma is a complex and dynamic process that labels, stereotypes human difference resulting in rejection as a form of social control (Link, 2001). Stigma to Transgender people occurs at multiple levels which is drawn according to the modified social ecological model of transgender stigma and stigma interventions (Hughto et al., 2015). Accordingly, stigma can be classified into three levels broadly – structural stigma (referring to societal norms and institutional policies constraining access to resources), interpersonal stigma (referring to enacted forms of stigma such as discrimination, violence due to ones gender identity) and individual level of stigma (holding perception on gender, the beliefs they practice). It is evident from the study that these forms of stigma are highly prevalent among transgender people and have linked with adverse health outcomes likes depression, suicidal ideation, anxiety etc. (Grant et al., 2011, Sevelius, 2013).
Transgender people are treated unfairly because of their membership in particular society, which is considered as discrimination, according to the report submitted by the Ministry of Social Justice And Empowerment, 2014. They are humiliated and treated unequally and forced to survive under extreme hostilecontexts (Divan et al., 2016) in every walks of life ( Mukerjee, 2022; Ramos, 2018; Divan et al., 2016; Revathi, 2010). Transgender discrimination includes, assuming a person with their birth sex and not using person’s preferred name or pronoun, asking inappropriate question about their bodies, refusing access to housing, or extreme acts of violence (American Psychological Association, 2015) and generalised attitude of looking upon them as sex solicitors (Chandra & Jyoti, 2017). It is understood that their gender identity and gender experiences are related to marginalisation (Hughto et al., 2015) that impacts their personal life with stigma and discrimination driving isolation, violence, poverty (Divan et al., 2016).
Families to which transgender people belongs to cannot accept the gender transition of their children which is consummated in a related study. Chakrapani et al (2011) found that very few show their willingness to support their loved ones without trying to make them change. Transgender people realise their gender transition between the age of 13 and 18. At this time of gender transition they experience familial violence (Divan et al., 2016), as most families cannot accept the gender non-conforming behaviour in their children (Chandra & Jyoti, 2017; Chakrapani et.al. 2011). Also, in public sphere they are pushed towards the margins of society due to their gender non-conformity, resulting in exclusion (Priya & Kumar, 2021). Although they
are recognised with third gender status legally, this legal inclusion does not translate into social acceptance due to the hetero normative and exclusionary nature of the public sphere, as Habermas (1989) inferred. When transgender people reveal their gender visibility in public space, they become victims of discrimination and violence and are assaulted sexually (Chacko & Narrain, 2014). Verbeek et al. (2020) noticed that due to the visibility of their third gender, they reported forms of enacted stigma like being stared at, laughed at, abused at and avoided. Transphobia is one major factor for the disempowerment of transgender community (Semmalar, 2014). Redman (2018) found in his study that transexuality in all its forms is associated with prejudice and misunderstanding advancing transphobia. There exists many predefined notion (Chacko & Narrain, 2014) regarding their gender, sexuality, language etc. engendering discrimination and violence that is consequential in schools. According to American Civil Liberties Union national project, 2005, transphobia also adheres to binary gender norms affecting transgender people within their families, schools, workplace developing discrimination.
There are myths surrounding transgender people and their gender identity, that there is no biological basis for transgender issues and it is a mental disorder (Department of Gender studies, 2020). Despite studying gender as a non-binary construct for decades transgender identity is still associated with prejudice. This shows that lack of knowledge on transgender identity is the main reason surrounding such myth that lacks social support eventually. Knowledge about gender transition is less in the society (Chacko &
Narrain, 2014). The researcher found that the lack of information and ways to understand the issue, transgenders are ill equipped to deal with family adopting cruel measures to ensure gender conformity. This shows that less gender awareness has significant relationship with gender identity support. It also results in physical, emotional violence and withdrawal of social support towards transgender people.
Media Representation of Transgender people
Media is one discourse that reflects reality working with complex tapestry of discourses to recreate cultural understandings, as opined by researchers (Mocarski et al., 2019). In this era, where people use media effectively, it becomes a key information source to reach more people (Indian Inclusion report, 2013), many research has found that it has the potential to set social norms regarding sexual identity and can shape public opinion about it (Sink & Mastro, 2017; Billard, 2016) This makes obvious that media representation and public opinion has strong correlation within themselves. While media visibility is seen as a key vehicle for their emancipation, media representation can often show people evaluate transgender people. It can create larger awareness about transgender community in real-time contact. Nabi and Oliver (2009) opine that media representation connotes public impression of a
person including their gender. They further argue that ‘media depictions of deviant behaviour are influential because they directly convince people that certain behaviours are immoral. Nabi and Oliver (2009) found that media portrayal has significant influence in the minds of people about transgender people. It is also understood that it impacts the individual’s attitude towards transexuality. Media representation is also most relevant in establishing harmony with nature among the prevalence of fluid gender identities.
Mass mediated exposure operates as a catalyst in aiding knowledge to the individuals about LGBT people who lack direct contact with their culture endorsing tolerance toward that group (Jacobs & Meeusen, 2020). It also acts as a vehicle of intergroup contact and reduces prejudice. It is clear that media provides a wide-open rostrum to access knowledge about the third gender people in breaching the gender norms.In a study conducted by Hoffarth and Hodson (2018), found that media contact with transgender people increase empathy and decrease bias. Flores et al, 2019 resulted that the exposure effects of decreasing transphobia is a mechanism that leads to increased support for transgender people. It is assessed that positive exposure of transgender people in media increased social support for transgender people thus decreasing
transphobia. The lack of media attention of sexual minorities reduce mass-mediated contact opportunities and reproduce social inequalities in power relations termed as ‘symbolic annihilation’ (Billard, 2019). It even contributes to their marginalization and societal exclusion, as Moscowitz (2010) propounded. Larger readership publications create larger awareness about transgender community in real-time contact, pertinent to framing. As framing is a communicative agent for perpetual judgements, media intervention can be
effective in shaping one’s attitude towards transgender people. Media is the powerful agents of change as well as oppression (Indian inclusion report, 2013), media frames are important. Their framing of news stories can reflect public opinion and so journalists place themselves in the position of power. They are active agents in constructing the socio political environment that frames the news (Humphrey, 2016).
Objective of the study
The objective of the study are as follows:
- Was to analyse the media narratives of transgender people in English newspapers, The Hindu and Times of India.
- To discern the ‘representation of transgender people’ in newspaper using frames such as deviance, abnormality, religion, victimization, equal rights impacting the ‘attitude of cisgender people
- To explore the media perception as received by transgender people.
Research Question
Based on the above objective, following research questions were formulated. RQ1: What are the frames intended to represent transgender people in newspaper?
RQ2: Does media representation of transgender narratives has significant effect on attitude towards transgender people?
Hypothesis
H01: ‘Media Representation of transgender narratives’ has no significant effect on ‘Attitude towards transgender people’.
Research Methodology
The study adopts “Mixed Method Research Design” where qualitative data from two English newspapers were collected for analyses and transgender case study observations. The study focussed on the observations of personal interview with the transgender people case study deliberated with the objective of understanding their perception of media representation. Twelve transgender people (10 Transgender women and 2 transgender men) were interviewed from the areas of Kavundampalyam, Thudiyalur, Kannampalayam, Sulur, Kovilpalayam, Sultanpet from Coimbatore to examine the objective and unstructured interview questions for personal interview was conducted.
Also, for content analysis, the study propounded to examine the framing elements published in newspaper in regard with the transgender people related stories. It facilitated in understanding the way information was packed in the news about transgender people. Two newspapers of highest readership in the state, The Hindu and Times of India, Coimbatore edition from January, 2022 to August, 2023 based on the recent glossary of Tamil Nadu Government at the direction of Madras High court terming transgender people with ‘Maruviya Paalinam’ (“Tamil Nadu government notifies glossary”, 2022) of hard copies were taken for the content analysis. Central narrative of transgender people related stories were considered for framing patterns. In this study, five frames were coded ((Jacobs & Meeusen, 2020, Moscowitz, 2010) namely:
- Deviance frame stresses immoral deviant behaviour of transgender people ascribed to unsafe sexual contacts and promiscuity allusions to the pervasive nature of homosexuality and crime.
- Abnormality frame encompasses narratives of transexuality as a mental disease and abnormal.
- The religion frame invokes religious arguments articulated in news articles about transgender people.
- Equal rights frame entails expression of support to their gender advocating for equal rights
- Victimisation frame represents transgender people as victims of discrimination, rejection, physical and sexual violence.
This resulted in 62 news stories in which transgender people was the main narrative, excluding where they are only incidentally mentioned and not central. All the stories were subsequently read multiple times by the trained experts and coded using a pre-tested coding scheme.
For each variable the inter coder reliability values (percentage agreement and Krippendorff’s Alpha) was calculated confirming that the reliability meets the formal requirements with an average percentage agreement of 94.2% and an average Krippendorff’s coefficient of 0.85, ranging from 0.58 to 1.00.
Sampling Selection for case study
For selection of the sample population, the researcher adopted non probability sampling method, snowballing sampling (also known as chain referral sampling) was accommodated for the objective of the study for case analysis where a population (transgender people) is unknown, and hard to identify or locate subjects to meet the criteria for inclusion to assemble them as samples for research. Exponential non discriminative snowball sampling was used where the first subject was recruited and then he/she provides multiple referrals. Each new referral then offered more data for referral and so on until there are enough subjects for the sample. The first subject was picked from Kavundampalayam region of Coimbatore with the help from Social Welfare Department, Coimbatore district. The samples referred from other communities gave more referrals. Thus, the selected samples for qualitative data collection includes the total of 12 samples (Ten transgender women and two transgender men) were approached for the study.
Theoretical adaption
The study uses media framing theory, where five frames were coded namely Deviance, Abnormality, Religious, Equal Rights, Victimisation Frame (Jacobs & Meeusen, 2020). Framing Pattern by Laura Jacobs & Cecil Meeusen (2020) is based on the five frames that media represents framing of LGBT people and
homosexuality in the news generally relies on a set of recurring issue-specific frames, first, given their marginalized position in society, news often portrays LGBTs as different, displaying deviant sexual behaviour, with immoral and criminal urges adhering to norms that challenge society’s dominant heterosexual focus. This deviance frame depicts LGBTs as a fundamental threat to the social order, focusing on unsafe sex, HIV/AIDS, criminal behaviour and promiscuity. Second, the media has framed homosexuality as a mental disorder and an abnormal lifestyle, third, in some news stories arguments against homosexuality are placed in a religious context, fourth, an emerging frame is that LGBT people are portrayed as a social group with legitimate demands, focusing on the struggle to respect human rights and to
ensure equal opportunities (Moscowitz, 2010). Finally, a recurrent narrative is a frame depicting LGBTs as victims of discrimination and physical violence. This framing theory is adopted in this study to analyse the frames that newspaper had portrayed on transgender related stories, implying that framing patterns can greatly fluctuate over time.
Analysis and Interpretation
(i) To analyse the hypothesis, Kruskal- Wallis Chi-Square test, among ‘Media representation f transgender narratives’ with ‘attitude towards transgender people’ was adopted in Table 1.1.
From the above table 1.1, the results indicate that there is significant (P-value 0.000) association between media representation of transgender narratives with attitude towards transgender people, hence the null hypothesis H01: ‘Media Representation of transgender narratives’ has no significant effect on ‘Attitude towards transgender people’ is rejected.
It can be stated that media representation of transgender narratives has significant impact with the attitude of cisgender people towards transgender people, as it forges a judgement opined about transgender people. This result has also stated that negative media attention contributes to negative attitude towards transgender people (Verbeek et al., 2020).
(ii) The below table 1.2 shows distributions of mean ranks of individual statements assessing the ‘media representation of transgender people’.
Where,
a. Transgender are sexually objectified as domains of entertainment
b. Narratives of transgender as normal
c. Transgender as sexual objects
d. Transgender daily struggles
e. Portraying them as criminals
f. Transgender achievements
g. Transgender culture and lifestyle
Transgender people as ‘Domains of Entertainment’:
From the Table 1.2, it is observed that the respondents had agreed (mean value is 2.0161) that “media portrays transgender people as domains of entertainment”. When media becomes a key information source to reach more people (Indian Inclusion report, 2013), it can shape public opinion through its representation. So, media representing transgender people in domains of entertainment, mockery can affect people evaluating them (Jacobs & Meeusen, 2020), it connotes public impression that gender non conformity is deviant and immoral (Nabi & Oliver, 2009). It can be interpreted that media portraying transgender as entertainment is related to the negative attitude towards transgender people discriminating them in public places, feeling uncomfortable in sharing workplace with them, affecting their economic mobility conducive to the structural stigma of transgender people.
Media highlights the involvement of transgender people in street based sex work and begging but not the harassment the transgender people face (Ramos, 2018). But, there is agreement (mean value is 3.2052) that “transgender people are portrayed as sexual objects in media”. It is found that the frames of
abnormality that “gender transition is a mental disorder”, sexually deviant framed as sex workers is found absent in newspaper representation of transgender related stories taken for the study.
(iii) Table 1.3 shows distributions of mean ranks of individual statements assessing the ‘negative attitude towards transgender people’.
Where,
a. Men who dress as women is disgusting.
b. I wouldn’t feel comfortable sharing such close, intimate space with a transgender roommate
c. I avoid transgendered individuals whenever possible
d. Letting transgender women into women’s only shelters would lead to unsafe situations for the other women at the shelter.
e. Transgendered individuals should not be allowed to cross dress in public
f. If a family member of mine came out as transgender, I would be comfortable being around them
g. It is all right to make fun of people who cross dress
‘We are Jokers to Media’: Case 8
From the Table 1.3, the respondents agreed (mean value is 3.3883) that “it is all right to make fun of people”, this shows negative attitude towards transgender people. Expressing the dissatisfaction on the media representation of transgender people Case 8, expressed that they were often portrayed as jokers in media where media outlets script transgender stories when they wanted phenomenal plots which end up becoming a blockbuster. Casting male actors dressed in women attire doing a transgender role is actual injustice done to the community, she asserted. ‘They want audience to laugh at us’, she said. It is also noted that respondents agreed (mean value is 2.8974) for “Men who dress as women is disgusting”, as stated in Casey’s (2016) approach that that disgust reactions towards transgender people affect their attitude towards them as, that puts transgender people up to 25 times greater risk of abuse, assault and suicide (Flores et al., 2016), also responding to “Transgendered individuals should not be allowed to cross dress in public” (mean of 3.2052), as it is “disgusting”.
Narratives of transgender as normal
It becomes vital to represent them not as a challenge to the social construction of gender as stated in Khalil et al., (2020), portraying them with stereotypes as sexual objects also as sexual objectifications. The results manifest “transgender people involved in sex work and begging only” aids in developing negative attitude towards them. Also, such portrayal is disliked by the transgender cases taken for the study. Cisgender people who lack contact with transgender individual, depend on mass media largely to be aware of them endorsing
tolerance towards that group (Jacobs & Meeusen, 2020), but respondents disagreed (mean value is 4.1167) for “transgender narratives as normal” and their culture and lifestyle (mean of 4.2817). In that case, media representation of transgender narratives as normal is significant in developing positive attitude towards the community, is observed (Verbeek et al., 2020). Also, more the information about transgender people engaged in newspaper it becomes radial that the people get familiar with the targeted group. It is remarkable
to report significant stories about the population that introduces the transgender community to the people who lack direct contact with them.
It is interpreted that portraying transgender people involved in sex work and begging only aids in developing negative attitude towards them. In that case, media representation of transgender narratives as normal is significant in developing positive attitude towards the community, is observed as stated in
(Verbeek et al., 2020). Similarly, Case 1 and Case 3 asserted that media portray them in domains of entertainment and does everything for TRP. Whereas, Case 8 expressed her dismay in portrayal of transgender over their gender identity for any issue which is not in case for binary people. This makes others
to blame the whole community instead, which needs to get fair and the change of livelihood of transgender people needs more emphasize, she said as media is the powerful agents of change as well as oppression according to Indian Inclusion Report (2013), it should be pivotal in defining what is normal, acceptable, or desirable with utmost responsibility.
As case 1 suggests a change that very few countable media outlets portray them responsibly, it is the need of the hour to look upon the narratives of transgender representation in media for favourable attitude towards sexual minorities (transgender people) for social inclusion. As these frames were given least importance to, adhering gender equity in the public sphere. It is understood that there is as journalists place themselves in the position of power (Humphrey, 2016). There is a shift from problematizing transexuality to
problematizing transphobia (Jacobs & Meeusen 2020). Therefore, H01: ‘Media Representation of transgender narratives’ has no significant effect on ‘Attitude towards transgender people’ is rejected.
RQ1: What are the frames intended to represent transgender people in newspaper?
Figure 1.1 shows the Pie chart distribution of transgender people related stories in news frames It is observed from Figure 1.1 that more stories were intrinsic in portraying transgender in Equal rights frame (53.2%), followed by Victimisation frame (21.0%), Deviance frame (17.7%), Religion frames (6.5%) and 1.6% on frames of Abnormality. Furthermore, from the figure 1.2 and figure 1.3, it is explored that both the newspapers focus more on equal rights frame than other frames.
Deviance Frame
Deviance frame stresses immoral deviant behaviour of transgender people ascribed to unsafe sexual contacts and promiscuity allusions to the pervasive nature of homosexuality, crime. Miniscule number of stories was published in this frame of deviance as it discourses transgender people as social deviants (Chacko & Narrain, 2014). The result from the analysis finds that deviance frame is given least importance to, adhering gender equity in the public sphere. Representing them in deviance frame showing transexuality need to be
banned to maintain social order (Reddy, 2006), often portray them in a stereotypical and harmful manner (Joshi, 2021), pushing them as social outcasts (Philip, 2018).
Abnormality Frame
Abnormality frame encompasses narratives of transexuality as a mental disease and it is abnormal. There are no stories and lesser stories were published in the frame of abnormality in The Hindu and The Times of
India respectively taken during the period. The result can be interpreted that there is decrease in the frame that seeks positive change to reduce transphobia. It is observed from the results that there is decrease in the
usage of deviance frame and abnormality frame portraying transgender people negatively that adheres to gender equity in the public sphere.
Religion Frame
The religion frame invokes religious arguments articulated in news articles about transgender people. While same sex marriage becomes the provocative subject that involves transgender rights, religious arguments pronouncing gender with religious belief evoked. This can be said to mean that religious frame revolves around transphobic preconceived notions without aware of real time cultural tradition of documented Indian history, which needs to address with validation.
Victimisation Frame
It is analysed that victimization frame is the second largest frame in The Hindu and third largest in Times of India newspapers, that it expresses the struggles that transgender people had faced developing empathy over disgust. It is noticed that in an attempt to depict transgender in real- time, news organizations take effort to bridge between sexual minorities and binary people. The most common frames of transgender people issues in media were on education, equality and safety issues (Markel et al., 2017)). This way of media framing provides lower familiarity with other issues such as social stigma, cultural understandings.
Equal Rights Frame
Equal rights frame entails expression of support to their gender advocating for equal rights. The newspapers provide acquaintance on gender transition, stating ‘Growing up with lesbian or gay parents will not necessarily make a child lesbian or gay’, normalizing transgender pregnancy of Ziya and Zahad, the Kerala transgender couple. It is also observed that there prominence in ‘Equality will lead to improvement in well being, legal safety and access to legal rights’, ‘They have the right as everyone else to be with whom they love
have children and cohabit, own assets together and more’, ensuring immense impetus to self-esteem, besides lowering anxiety and depression.
Findings of the study
- Media representation of transgender narratives has significant impact with the attitude of cisgender people towards transgender people, as it forges a judgement opined about transgender people. Media portraying transgender people as entertainment is highly related to the negative attitude towards transgender people discriminating them in public places, feeling uncomfortable in sharing workplace with them, affecting their economic mobility conducive to the structural stigma of transgender people.
- Media representing transgender people as normal with their lifestyle portraying them in their daily life results in decreasing transphobia leading to increased support for their acceptance.
- Transgender people are not satisfied with the media portrayal about them. Media representation of transgender people in domains of entertainment makes negative impression in the minds of people. They
want them to be portrayed as normal, focusing on showing them as someone having a career and also relationship. - Newspapers had practiced in portraying transgender people in Equal rights frame followed by victimisation frame than other frames. Importance on transgender related stories pertained to equal
rights frame, consequently discuss the gender inclusion advocating changes in policy implementation that eventually encourages gender identity recognition. It is explored that transgender wants them to be
portrayed as normal, focusing on showing them as someone having a career and also relationship. - Miniscule number of stories published in the frame of deviance and abnormality permeate transexuality excluding them from the mainstream society. The decrease in the usage of deviance frame and
abnormality frame portraying transgender people negatively that adheres to gender equity in the public sphere. - Religious frame revolves around transphobic preconceived notions and misconceptions that gender transition is incorrect, that is annexed with religious understanding. The frame of victimisation expresses the struggles that transgender people had faced developing empathy over disgust.
Discussion
Media portrayal of transgender narratives plays a vital role in framing public opinion about them in minds of people that also have contribution in developing attitude towards transgender people. When media frames
transgender individuals as mere entertainment, it often leads to negative perceptions and discriminatory behaviour in public spaces, work places, and societal structures, ultimately impacting their economic mobility and perpetuating structural stigma.
There is a palpable dissatisfaction among transgender individuals with how they are depicted in the media. Many feel that they are often portrayed as jokers, particularly in situations where sensational plots or blockbuster entertainment are prioritized. Sexist jokes can be a form of sexual objectification, which reduce the butt of the joke to an object. When sexism is presented in a humorous manner it is viewed as tolerable and socially acceptable. More specific, cissexism, the social norm that views cisgender people as both natural and privileged as opposed to transgender people, is hurtful to people and leads to emotional challenges and low self-esteem. The cissexist policies at schools or workplaces are barriers to success for many transgender people. However, there has been a discernible shift in the framing of transgender- related stories towards an equal rights perspective, as evidenced by content analysis of media coverage. Yet, there remains a gap in sustaining these normal narratives of transgender lives in media stories, with a tendency to focus more on achievements and controversies rather than everyday experiences. News organizations play a crucial role in bridging the gap between sexual minorities and the binary population, often employing frames of equal rights to foster understanding and acceptance. While issues
related to education, equality, and safety receive significant coverage, there remains a lack of familiarity with other important issues such as social stigma and cultural understandings of transgender people. Now, visibility
in media is seen as a key vehicle for their political emancipation and a precondition for the recognition of their rights and legitimacy as a social group where media framing affects political agenda-setting and initiate policy making changes regarding transgender issues in such a way that equal rights frame is important that it can shape public opinion powerfully and have effect in policy outcomes.
Moreover, discussions spurred by media coverage often lead to advocacy efforts for gender- inclusive education, the enrolment of transgender individuals under free seat quotas in educational institutions,
combating discrimination, campus sensitization, and advocating for policy changes to promote gender identity recognition. By amplifying these issues and advocating for change, media can play a significant role in advancing the rights and dignity of transgender individuals in society.
Conclusion
The representatives express concerns over the dissemination of information and press for greater outreach (Krishna, 2024), media representation of transgender community thus, becomes significant. Also, the role that the norms of media outlet plays, the opinions of transgender inclusion of the journalists, the prejudice he/she holds on transgender people, the knowledge about gender transition of the reporter who reports the news articles costs the frame of that particular news story. This is understood that there is as
journalists place themselves in the position of power.
Cues to action through social communication in media depicting them as normal people and their demand over equal rights have indirectly exposed the concept of transgender existence and their struggles without discrimination. The history and dignified position that transgender people hold in the history should be communicated to develop respect towards them. Group activities involving transgender people participation facilitates interpersonal communication that often tend to influence each other to share their
thoughts and feelings and improve understanding over gender change is natural. As Kalki Subramaniam, a transgender activist, writer and actress released her third book Oru Thirunangaiyin Diary Kurippu’ stated that education played a major role in gender inclusion because it is a weapon to overcome challenges of transgender people, emphasizing that transgender
individuals should not be deprived of education thus eradicating the causative factors of education drop out among them.
Parents and teachers should develop knowledge about gender transition and make an effort to understand them getting counselling from the social welfare department. Therefore, adequate importance should be given through sensitisation and media communication on social, cultural and political aspects of transgender people representation which in turn can lead to the development and empowerment of the community by getting education, employment, and accessibility to live happily with the visibility of their
gender. The future is the expansion of gender and sexuality where gender justice will prevail and men, women, transgender people will be treated equally and enjoy their rights. To create that world in future, we
start from now; from today; by getting to know people who are transgender (Subramanian, 2021). The limitation of the study is that it takes only two English newspapers for a particular period of time with particular frames. Further study can be done using vernacular newspapers, more English newspapers with extended period of time under various frames.
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